They have rivers in Bolivia. Whereever you passed the bar maybe needs to make the multiple choice harder.
Research Article Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy Mathis Wackernagel, Niels B. Schulz, Diana Deumling, Alejandro Callejas Linares, Martin Jenkins, Valerie Kapos, Chad Monfreda, Jonathan Loh, Norman Myers, Richard Norgaard, and Jørgen Randers See all authors and affiliations PNAS July 9, 2002 99 (14) 9266-9271; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.142033699 Edited by Edward O. Wilson, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved May 16, 2002 (received for review January 17, 2002) Article Figures & SI Info & Metrics PDF Abstract Sustainability requires living within the regenerative capacity of the biosphere. In an attempt to measure the extent to which humanity satisfies this requirement, we use existing data to translate human demand on the environment into the area required for the production of food and other goods, together with the absorption of wastes. Our accounts indicate that human demand may well have exceeded the biosphere's regenerative capacity since the 1980s. According to this preliminary and exploratory assessment, humanity's load corresponded to 70% of the capacity of the global biosphere in 1961, and grew to 120% in 1999. Accounting for Humanity's Use of the Global Biosphere The human economy depends on the planet's natural capital, which provides all ecological services and natural resources. Drawing on natural capital beyond its regenerative capacity results in depletion of the capital stock. Through comprehensive resource accounting that compares human demand to the biological capacity of the globe, it should be possible to detect this depletion to help prepare a path toward sustainability. The purpose of this study is to develop such an accounting framework, and to measure the extent of humanity's current demand on the planet's bioproductive capacity. We build on many earlier attempts to create comprehensive measures of human impact on the biosphere. For example, Vitousek et al. (1) used consumption estimates to calculate humanity's appropriation of the biosphere's Net Primary Productivity (NPP). They concluded that the human economy co-opted organic material equivalent to 40% of the NPP of terrestrial ecosystems in 1980. Odum developed a conceptual basis for accounting for energy flows through ecosystems and human economies, but did not produce overall accounts (2). Fischer-Kowalski and Hüttler (3) advanced the concept of “societal metabolism,” using material flow analysis as a macro indicator for the environmental performance of societies. The Global Environment Outlook 2000 (4) and World Resources 2000–2001 (5) describe human impacts on various ecosystem types in detail, but both reports lack an aggregated summary of the impacts. Others have analyzed the integrity of subcomponents of the biosphere, such as carbon cycles (6), freshwater use (7, 8), and the nitrogen cycle (9), have assigned approximate monetary values to the ecological services that humanity depends on (10), or established frameworks for monetary natural capital accounts for nations (11). This preliminary and exploratory study demonstrates an aggregated approach to natural capital accounting in biophysical units. A wide variety of human uses of nature are identified, measured, and expressed in units that enable direct comparison of human demands with nature's supply of ecological services. The calculation results and annotated spreadsheet for 1999 are published as supporting information on the PNAS web site, www.pnas.org. Our global accounts build on assessments of the “ecological footprint” of humanity (12, 13). Such assessments are based on six assumptions: More...
UK farmers may have to cut livestock count to save rivers, says expert "Overload of chicken and dairy cow manure has left some catchments critical, says author of book on issue Farming is the most significant source of water pollution and ammonia emissions into the atmosphere in the UK, according to government data. Photograph: Ian Hinchliffe/Alamy Tom Levitt Mon 29 Nov 2021 17.01 GMT Last modified on Tue 30 Nov 2021 04.37 GMT "UK farmers may have to reduce the number of animals they keep because of the critical state of some river catchments, a pollution expert from the government’s environment watchdog has said. "Farming is the most significant source of water pollution and ammonia emissions into the atmosphere in the UK, according to government data. It accounts for 25% of phosphate, 50% of nitrate and 75% of sediment loadings in the water environment, which harms ecosystems. "Speaking independently, Tim Bailey of the Environment Agency said the state of catchments such as the River Wye and the Somerset Levels and Moors had become critical because of the number of chickens and dairy cows and the problem of disposing of manure from farms. "Just three counties – Herefordshire, Shropshire and Powys – produce more than a quarter of a billion chickens a year, capacity having doubled in the past decade. “Many catchments are already at or beyond the capacity of the environment to cope, and more will follow unless we take unparalleled action,” said Bailey, the author of Livestock’s Longer Shadow, about the industry’s environmental impact in the UK. “In some instances it will entail the reduction and restriction of livestock production, or the treatment and export of organic manures. There are catchments like the River Wye where we need to export to other catchments, but transferring the problem will eventually risk creating a UK-wide pollution problem,” he said. “It’s a critical situation.” "Environmental campaigners have referred to the Wye as “like pea soup at times” as a result of algal blooms fuelled in part by phosphate-rich excrement eventually making its way to the river. "One of the UK’s biggest chicken suppliers, Avara Foods, which supplies Tesco and other supermarkets, has admitted that chicken litter from its farms has polluted the waterway. "Bailey said livestock numbers needed to match the carrying capacity of the area, rather than the current heavy concentrations in some places. “We have to start fitting livestock into the environment. That way we are not stressing the environment so that it can’t cope.” "As well as destocking, the solution would entail a mix of regulation, advice and financial support for farmers, he said. “This is not a farmer problem, it’s a societal problem. Farmers want to get to the same place, but are trapped in a cheap food economy. If society wants a clean River Wye or to stop Amazon deforestation, then it has to take responsibility.” "A spokesperson for Avara Foods said the company was looking at alternative destinations for chicken litter waste from its supply chain, including combined heat and power plants and novel anaerobic digestion technology, which would also remove phosphates. "The National Farmers’ Union and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs have been approached for comment." https://www.theguardian.com/environ...ut-livestock-count-to-save-rivers-says-expert Livestock numbers need to match the carrying capacity of the area: words to live by.
Extreme weather and pandemic help drive global food prices to 46-year high Current high food prices, combined with the ongoing pandemic, will make the global food supply highly vulnerable to extreme weather shocks in 2022. by Jeff Masters December 6, 2021 Aerial view of stranded barges along the Mississippi River in Louisiana, on August 30, 2021, in the wake of category 4 Hurricane Ida. The hurricane significantly disrupted transport of grains and fertilizer in September, contributing to high global food prices. (Image credit: Congressman Garret Graves (R-La), Ranking Member of the House Select Committee on the Climate Crisis) "Global food prices in November rose 1.2% compared to October, and were at their highest level since June 2011 (unadjusted for inflation), the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) said in its monthly report on December 2. After adjusting for inflation, 2021 food prices averaged for the 11 months of 2021 are the highest in 46 years. "The high prices come despite expectations that total global production of grains in 2021 will set an all-time record: 0.7% higher than the previous record set in 2020. But because of higher demand (in part, from an increased amount of wheat and corn used to feed animals), the 2021 harvest is not expected to meet consumption requirements in 2021/2022, resulting in a modest drawdown in global grain stocks by the end of 2022, to their lowest levels since 2015/2016. Figure 1. Global food prices averaged over the year 2021 are the highest since 1975, after adjusting for inflation. (Image credit: United National Food and Agriculture Organization) "The November increase in global food prices was largely the result of a surge in prices of grains and dairy products, with wheat prices a dominant driver. In an interview at fortune.com, Carlos Mera, head of agri commodities market research at Rabobank, blamed much of the increase in wheat prices on drought and high temperatures hitting major wheat producers including the U.S., Canada, and Russia. "Drought and heat in the U.S. caused a 40% decline in the spring wheat crop in 2021, and a 10% decline in the total wheat crop (spring wheat makes up about 25% of total U.S. wheat production). Economic damages to agriculture in the U.S. are expected to exceed $5 billion in 2021, according to Aon (see Tweet below). The highest losses are expected in the Northern Plains, where the spring wheat crop was hit hard by drought and heat. Fortunately, the 2021 U.S. corn crop was estimated to be the second largest on record, 7% larger than in 2020. The 2021 soybean crop was also estimated to be second largest on record, up 5% from 2020. Extreme weather a key factor in high food prices "Food prices are complex, with weather, biofuel policies, trade policies, grain stocking policies, and fluctuating international financial conditions all important factors. High fuel prices, supply chain disruptions resulting from the pandemic, and high fertilizer prices are all contributing to the current high global food prices. "According to Reuters, global fertilizer prices have increased 80% this year, reaching their highest levels since the 2008-2009 global financial crisis. Primary causes of the current high prices include extreme weather events (particularly the February cold wave in Texas and Hurricane Ida in August), which disrupted U.S. fertilizer production, and the high cost in Europe of natural gas, a key component in producing fertilizer). Fertilizer shortages threaten to reduce grain harvests in 2022, according to CF Industries, a major fertilizer producer. "Carlos Mera of Rabobank pointed out that Russia, a major wheat producer, hiked its export tax on wheat this year to incentivize keeping supplies at home. “That is quite scary,” said Mera. “Events like the French Revolution and the Arab Spring have been blamed on high food prices.” High wheat prices in 2011 (in the wake of export restrictions triggered by the 2010 drought in Russia) helped lead to massive civil unrest and the toppling of multiple governments (the “Arab Spring”). "The current high food prices, combined with the ongoing pandemic, will make the global food supply highly vulnerable to extreme weather shocks in 2022. An upcoming post here will analyze what may be climate change’s greatest threat to society: a food-system shock driven by extreme weather, primarily drought, and causing simultaneous crop failures in multiple key grain-exporting areas." https://yaleclimateconnections.org/...elp-drive-global-food-prices-to-46-year-high/